1984

           TheheirsoftheFrench,English,andAmericanrevolutionshadpartlybelievedintheirownphrasesabouttherightsofman,freedomofspeech,equalitybeforethelaw,andthelike,andhaveevenallowedtheirconducttobeinfluencedbythemtosomeextent. Butbythefourthdecadeofthetwentiethcenturyallthemaincurrentsofpoliticalthoughtwereauthoritarian. Theearthlyparadisehadbeendiscreditedatexactlythemomentwhenitbecamerealizable. Everynewpoliticaltheory,bywhatevernameitcalleditself,ledbacktohierarchyandregimentation. Andinthegeneralhardeningofoutlookthatsetinroundabout1930,practiceswhichhadbeenlongabandoned,insomecasesforhundredsofyears —imprisonmentwithouttrial,theuseofwarprisonersasslaves,publicexecutions,torturetoextractconfessions,theuseofhostages,andthedeportationofwholepopulations —notonlybecamecommonagain,butweretoleratedandevendefendedbypeoplewhoconsideredthemselvesenlightenedandprogressive. 

           Itwasonlyafteradecadeofnationalwars,civilwars,revolutions,andcounter-revolutionsinallpartsoftheworldthatIngsocanditsrivalsemergedasfullyworked-outpoliticaltheories. Buttheyhadbeenforeshadowedbythevarioussystems,generallycalledtotalitarian,whichhadappearedearlierinthecentury,andthemainoutlinesoftheworldwhichwouldemergefromtheprevailingchaoshadlongbeenobvious. Whatkindofpeoplewouldcontrolthisworldhadbeenequallyobvious. Thenewaristocracywasmadeupforthemostpartofbureaucrats,scientists,technicians,trade-unionorganizers,publicityexperts,sociologists,teachers,journalists,andprofessionalpoliticians. Thesepeople,whoseoriginslayinthesalariedmiddleclassandtheuppergradesoftheworkingclass,hadbeenshapedandbroughttogetherbythebarrenworldofmonopolyindustryandcentralizedgovernment.